[1] Report of a World Health Organization Consultation. Diagnostic criteria and classification of hyperglycaemia first detected in pregnancy: a World Health Organization guideline. Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 2014; 103, 341−63. doi:  10.1016/j.diabres.2013.10.012
[2] Zhang X, Gong YH, Corte KD, et al. Relevance of dietary glycemic index, glycemic load and fiber intake before and during pregnancy for the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus and maternal glucose homeostasis. Clin Nutr, 2021; 40, 2791−9. doi:  10.1016/j.clnu.2021.03.041
[3] Wang H, Li NH, Chivese T, et al. IDF diabetes atlas: estimation of global and regional gestational diabetes mellitus prevalence for 2021 by international association of diabetes in pregnancy study group's criteria. Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 2022; 183, 109050. doi:  10.1016/j.diabres.2021.109050
[4] Hillier TA, Pedula KL, Schmidt MM, et al. Childhood obesity and metabolic imprinting: the ongoing effects of maternal hyperglycemia. Diabetes Care, 2007; 30, 2287−92. doi:  10.2337/dc06-2361
[5] Kessous R, Shoham-Vardi I, Pariente G, et al. An association between gestational diabetes mellitus and long-term maternal cardiovascular morbidity. Heart, 2013; 99, 1118−21. doi:  10.1136/heartjnl-2013-303945
[6] Bao W, Tobias DK, Olsen SF, et al. Pre-pregnancy fried food consumption and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study. Diabetologia, 2014; 57, 2485−91. doi:  10.1007/s00125-014-3382-x
[7] Schoenaker DAJM, Mishra GD, Callaway LK, et al. The role of energy, nutrients, foods, and dietary patterns in the development of gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review of observational studies. Diabetes Care, 2016; 39, 16−23. doi:  10.2337/dc15-0540
[8] Zhang CL, Ning Y. Effect of dietary and lifestyle factors on the risk of gestational diabetes: review of epidemiologic evidence. Am J Clin Nutr, 2011; 94, S1975−9. doi:  10.3945/ajcn.110.001032
[9] Lee SE, Talegawkar SA, Merialdi M, et al. Dietary intakes of women during pregnancy in low- and middle-income countries. Public Health Nutr, 2013; 16, 1340−53. doi:  10.1017/S1368980012004417
[10] FAO. Minimum dietary diversity for women: a guide for measurement. FAO: Rome, Italy, 2016.
[11] Martin-Prével Y, Allemanda P, Wiesmannb D, et al. Moving forward on choosing a standard operational indicator of women's dietary diversity. FAO: Rome, Italy, 2015.
[12] Heiman ML, Greenway FL. A healthy gastrointestinal microbiome is dependent on dietary diversity. Mol Metab, 2016; 5, 317−20. doi:  10.1016/j.molmet.2016.02.005
[13] Randall E, Nichaman MZ, Contant CF Jr. Diet diversity and nutrient intake. J Am Diet Assoc, 1985; 85, 830−6. doi:  10.1016/S0002-8223(21)03718-4
[14] Conklin AI, Monsivais P, Khaw KT, et al. Dietary diversity, diet cost, and incidence of type 2 diabetes in the United Kingdom: a prospective cohort study. PLoS Med, 2016; 13, e1002085. doi:  10.1371/journal.pmed.1002085
[15] Liu MY, Liu CZ, Zhang ZX, et al. Quantity and variety of food groups consumption and the risk of diabetes in adults: a prospective cohort study. Clin Nutr, 2021; 40, 5710−7. doi:  10.1016/j.clnu.2021.10.003
[16] Zhong CR, Chen RJ, Zhou XZ, et al. Cohort profile: the tongji maternal and child health cohort (TMCHC). Int J Epidemiol, 2023; 52, e152−61. doi:  10.1093/ije/dyac209
[17] Zhang HM, Qiu X, Zhong CR, et al. Reproducibility and relative validity of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire for Chinese pregnant women. Nutr J, 2015; 14, 56. doi:  10.1186/s12937-015-0044-x
[18] China CDC National Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety. China food composition. 2nd ed. Peking University Medical Press. 2009. (In Chinese)
[19] Rammohan A, Goli S, Singh D, et al. Maternal dietary diversity and odds of low birth weight: Empirical findings from India. Women Health, 2019; 59, 375−90. doi:  10.1080/03630242.2018.1487903
[20] Cano-Ibáñez N, Martínez-Galiano JM, Amezcua-Prieto C, et al. Maternal dietary diversity and risk of small for gestational age newborn: findings from a case-control study. Clin Nutr, 2020; 39, 1943−50. doi:  10.1016/j.clnu.2019.08.019
[21] Diabetes International Association of, Panel Pregnancy Study Groups Consensus. International association of diabetes and pregnancy study groups recommendations on the diagnosis and classification of hyperglycemia in pregnancy. Diabetes Care, 2010; 33, 676−82. doi:  10.2337/dc09-1848
[22] Coorperative Meta-analysis Group of China Obesity Task Force, Zhou BF. Predictive values of body mass index and waist circumference to risk factors of related diseases in Chinese adult population. Chin J Epidemiol, 2002; 23, 5−10. (In Chinese)
[23] Standard of recommendation for weight gain during pregnancy period. Biomed Environ Sci, 2022; 35, 875-7.
[24] Adu-Afarwuah S, Lartey A, Dewey KG. Meeting nutritional needs in the first 1000 days: a place for small-quantity lipid-based nutrient supplements. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 2017; 1392, 18−29. doi:  10.1111/nyas.13328
[25] King JC. Physiology of pregnancy and nutrient metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr, 2000; 71, 1218S−25S. doi:  10.1093/ajcn/71.5.1218s
[26] Arimond M, Wiesmann D, Becquey E, et al. Simple food group diversity indicators predict micronutrient adequacy of women's diets in 5 diverse, resource-poor settings. J Nutr, 2010; 140, 2059S−69S. doi:  10.3945/jn.110.123414
[27] Marshall NE, Abrams B, Barbour LA, et al. The importance of nutrition in pregnancy and lactation: lifelong consequences. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2022; 226, 607−32. doi:  10.1016/j.ajog.2021.12.035
[28] Rasmussen L, Poulsen CW, Kampmann U, et al. Diet and healthy lifestyle in the management of gestational diabetes mellitus. Nutrients, 2020; 12, 3050. doi:  10.3390/nu12103050
[29] Koren O, Goodrich JK, Cullender TC, et al. Host remodeling of the gut microbiome and metabolic changes during pregnancy. Cell, 2012; 150, 470−80. doi:  10.1016/j.cell.2012.07.008
[30] Ponzo V, Fedele D, Goitre I, et al. Diet-gut microbiota Interactions and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Nutrients, 2019; 11, 330. doi:  10.3390/nu11020330
[31] Narmaki E, Siassi F, Koohdani F, et al. Dietary diversity as a proxy measure of blood antioxidant status in women. Nutrition, 2015; 31, 722−6. doi:  10.1016/j.nut.2014.12.012
[32] Vincent HK, Bourguignon CM, Weltman AL, et al. Effects of antioxidant supplementation on insulin sensitivity, endothelial adhesion molecules, and oxidative stress in normal-weight and overweight young adults. Metabolism, 2009; 58, 254−62. doi:  10.1016/j.metabol.2008.09.022
[33] Bazzano LA, Li TY, Joshipura KJ, et al. Intake of fruit, vegetables, and fruit juices and risk of diabetes in women. Diabetes Care, 2008; 31, 1311−7. doi:  10.2337/dc08-0080
[34] Bazzano LA, He J, Ogden LG, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of cardiovascular disease in US adults: the first National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Am J Clin Nutr, 2002; 76, 93−9. doi:  10.1093/ajcn/76.1.93
[35] Liu CQ, Zhong CR, Chen RJ, et al. Higher dietary vitamin C intake is associated with a lower risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a longitudinal cohort study. Clin Nutr, 2020; 39, 198−203. doi:  10.1016/j.clnu.2019.01.015
[36] Zhang CL, Williams MA, Frederick IO, et al. Vitamin C and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a case-control study. J Reprod Med, 2004; 49, 257−66.
[37] Wang PP, Dong HL, Sun H, et al. Association between dietary vitamin A intake and gestational diabetes mellitus in the first trimester. Chin J Prev Med, 2021; 55, 1293−8. (In Chinese)
[38] Najafi F, Hasani J, Izadi N, et al. Risk of gestational diabetes mellitus by pre-pregnancy body mass index: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab Syndr Clin Res Rev, 2021; 15, 102181. doi:  10.1016/j.dsx.2021.06.018
[39] Sun Y, Shen ZZ, Zhan YL, et al. Effects of pre-pregnancy body mass index and gestational weight gain on maternal and infant complications. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 2020; 20, 390. doi:  10.1186/s12884-020-03071-y
[40] Shin D, Lee KW, Song WO. Pre-pregnancy weight status is associated with diet quality and nutritional biomarkers during pregnancy. Nutrients, 2016; 8, 162. doi:  10.3390/nu8030162
[41] Tsigga M, Filis V, Hatzopoulou K, et al. Healthy eating index during pregnancy according to pre-gravid and gravid weight status. Public Health Nutr, 2011; 14, 290−6. doi:  10.1017/S1368980010001989
[42] FAO. Minimum dietary diversity for women-an updated guide to measurement: from collection to action. FAO: Rome, Italy, 2021.
[43] Viteri FE. A new concept in the control of iron deficiency: community-based preventive supplementation of at-risk groups by the weekly intake of iron supplements. Biomed Environ Sci, 1998; 11, 46−60.
[44] Ning ZY, Zhang JL, Fan BB, et al. Life-course trajectories of body mass index, insulin resistance, and incident diabetes in Chinese adults. Biomed Environ Sci, 2025; 38, 706−15.
[45] Ma RX, Liu C, Zhang L, et al. Selenium, type-2 diabetes, and the possible protective role of vitamin D. Biomed Environ Sci, 2024; 37, 661−5.