[1] Chooi YC, Ding C, Magkos F. The epidemiology of obesity. Metabolism, 2019; 92, 6−10. doi:  10.1016/j.metabol.2018.09.005
[2] Su SY, Liu FC. Cardiovascular health and disease report in China: two decades of progress. Biomed Environ Sci, 2025; 38, 891−2.
[3] Ortega FB, Lavie CJ, Blair SN. Obesity and cardiovascular disease. Circ Res, 2016; 118, 1752−70. doi:  10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.306883
[4] Koskinas KC, Van Craenenbroeck EM, Antoniades C, et al. Obesity and cardiovascular disease: an ESC clinical consensus statement. Eur Heart J, 2024; 45, 4063−98. doi:  10.1093/eurheartj/ehae508
[5] Koliaki C, Liatis S, Kokkinos A. Obesity and cardiovascular disease: revisiting an old relationship. Metabolism, 2019; 92, 98−107. doi:  10.1016/j.metabol.2018.10.011
[6] Van Gaal LF, Mertens IL, De Block CE. Mechanisms linking obesity with cardiovascular disease. Nature, 2006; 444, 875−80. doi:  10.1038/nature05487
[7] Masenga SK, Kabwe LS, Chakulya M, et al. Mechanisms of oxidative stress in metabolic syndrome. Int J Mol Sci, 2023; 24, 7898. doi:  10.3390/ijms24097898
[8] Guerrero-Romero F, Simental-Mendía LE, González-Ortiz M, et al. The product of triglycerides and glucose, a simple measure of insulin sensitivity. Comparison with the euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2010; 95, 3347−51. doi:  10.1210/jc.2010-0288
[9] Du TT, Yuan G, Zhang MX, et al. Clinical usefulness of lipid ratios, visceral adiposity indicators, and the triglycerides and glucose index as risk markers of insulin resistance. Cardiovasc Diabetol, 2014; 13, 146. doi:  10.1186/s12933-014-0146-3
[10] Karpe F, Dickmann JR, Frayn KN. Fatty acids, obesity, and insulin resistance: time for a reevaluation. Diabetes, 2011; 60, 2441−9. doi:  10.2337/db11-0425
[11] Muniyappa R. Vascular insulin resistance and free fatty acids: the micro-macro circulation nexus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2024; 109, e1671−2. doi:  10.1210/clinem/dgae013
[12] Simental-Mendía LE, Rodríguez-Morán M, Guerrero-Romero F. The product of fasting glucose and triglycerides as surrogate for identifying insulin resistance in apparently healthy subjects. Metab Syndr Relat Disord, 2008; 6, 299−304. doi:  10.1089/met.2008.0034
[13] WHO Expert Consultation. Appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations and its implications for policy and intervention strategies. Lancet, 2004; 363, 157−63. doi:  10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15268-3
[14] Thygesen K, Alpert JS, Jaffe AS, et al. Fourth universal definition of myocardial infarction (2018). J Am Coll Cardiol, 2018; 72, 2231−64. doi:  10.1016/j.jacc.2018.08.1038
[15] Hatano S. Experience from a multicentre stroke register: a preliminary report. Bull World Health Organ, 1976; 54, 541−53.
[16] Tian X, Chen SH, Wang PL, et al. Insulin resistance mediates obesity-related risk of cardiovascular disease: a prospective cohort study. Cardiovasc Diabetol, 2022; 21, 289. doi:  10.1186/s12933-022-01729-9
[17] Huo RR, Liao Q, Zhai L, et al. Interacting and joint effects of triglyceride-glucose index (TyG) and body mass index on stroke risk and the mediating role of TyG in middle-aged and older Chinese adults: a nationwide prospective cohort study. Cardiovasc Diabetol, 2024; 23, 30. doi:  10.1186/s12933-024-02122-4
[18] Sinha R, Dufour S, Petersen K, et al. Assessment of skeletal muscle triglyceride content by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in lean and obese adolescents: relationships to insulin sensitivity, total body fat, and central adiposity. Diabetes, 2002; 51, 1022−7. doi:  10.2337/diabetes.51.4.1022
[19] Grundy SM. Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2004; 89, 2595−600.
[20] Tao LC, Xu JN, Wang TT, et al. Triglyceride-glucose index as a marker in cardiovascular diseases: landscape and limitations. Cardiovasc Diabetol, 2022; 21, 68. doi:  10.1186/s12933-022-01511-x
[21] Alizargar J, Bai CH, Hsieh NC, et al. Use of the triglyceride-glucose index (TyG) in cardiovascular disease patients. Cardiovasc Diabetol, 2020; 19, 8. doi:  10.1186/s12933-019-0982-2
[22] Randle PJ, Garland PB, Hales CN, et al. The glucose fatty-acid cycle its role in insulin sensitivity and the metabolic disturbances of diabetes mellitus. Lancet, 1963; 281, 785−9. doi:  10.1016/S0140-6736(63)91500-9
[23] Shulman GI. Cellular mechanisms of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest, 2000; 106, 171−6. doi:  10.1172/JCI10583
[24] Griffin ME, Marcucci MJ, Cline GW, et al. Free fatty acid-induced insulin resistance is associated with activation of protein kinase C theta and alterations in the insulin signaling cascade. Diabetes, 1999; 48, 1270−4. doi:  10.2337/diabetes.48.6.1270
[25] Samuel VT, Shulman GI. Mechanisms for insulin resistance: common threads and missing links. Cell, 2012; 148, 852−71. doi:  10.1016/j.cell.2012.02.017
[26] Bessone F, Razori MV, Roma MG. Molecular pathways of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease development and progression. Cell Mol Life Sci, 2019; 76, 99−128. doi:  10.1007/s00018-018-2947-0
[27] Cusi K. The role of adipose tissue and lipotoxicity in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Curr Diab Rep, 2010; 10, 306−15. doi:  10.1007/s11892-010-0122-6
[28] Achard CS, Laybutt DR. Lipid-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress in liver cells results in two distinct outcomes: adaptation with enhanced insulin signaling or insulin resistance. Endocrinology, 2012; 153, 2164−77. doi:  10.1210/en.2011-1881
[29] Bodenstab ML, Varghese RT, Iacobellis G. Cardio-lipotoxicity of epicardial adipose tissue. Biomolecules, 2024; 14, 1465. doi:  10.3390/biom14111465
[30] DeFronzo RA. Insulin resistance, lipotoxicity, type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis: the missing links. The Claude Bernard Lecture 2009. Diabetologia, 2010; 53, 1270−87. doi:  10.1007/s00125-010-1684-1
[31] Shojaee-Moradie F, Baynes KCR, Pentecost C, et al. Exercise training reduces fatty acid availability and improves the insulin sensitivity of glucose metabolism. Diabetologia, 2007; 50, 404−13. doi:  10.1007/s00125-006-0498-7
[32] Rubino F, Cummings DE, Eckel RH, et al. Definition and diagnostic criteria of clinical obesity. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol, 2025; 13, 221−62. doi:  10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00316-4
[33] Powell-Wiley TM, Poirier P, Burke LE, et al. Obesity and cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 2021; 143, e984−1010.