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General characteristics and diets of the study sample are outlined in Table 1. Records with illogical answers or missing data were excluded. A total of 2,449 children aged 12–23 month-old were included in this analysis, with 1,258 boys (51.4%) and 1,191 girls (48.6%) after data cleaning. Of the children enrolled, 1,332 were from urban areas (54.4%), and 1,117 were from rural areas (45.6%). Children who consumed grain foods more than once per day (≥ 1/day) accounted for 88.4%. The percentage of children who consumed vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables, other fruits and vegetables, and eggs more than once per day were 59.9%, 69.4%, and 62.1%, respectively. Children who consumed flesh foods more than once per day took up 40.1%. The proportion of continuous breastfeeding was 29.4%. The figure for children who consumed dairy products more than once per day was 83.1%.
Variables Case % Variables Case % Gender Dairy products Boys 1,258 51.4 ≥ 1/day 2,035 83.1 Girls 1,191 48.6 1–6/week 137 5.6 Residential area < 1/week 277 11.3 Urban 1,332 54.4 Breast milk Rural 1,117 45.6 ≥ 1/day 504 20.6 Caregivers 1–6/week 215 8.8 Parents 1,463 59.7 < 1/week 1,730 70.6 Grandparents 935 38.2 Snacks Others 51 2.1 ≥ 1/day 869 35.5 Grains 1–6/week 1,162 47.4 ≥ 1/day 2,165 88.4 < 1/week 418 17.1 1–6/week 210 8.6 Sugar drinks < 1/week 74 3.0 ≥ 1/day 199 8.2 Vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables 1–6/week 400 16.3 ≥ 1/day 1,467 59.9 < 1/week 1,850 75.5 1–6/week 854 34.9 Fortified foods < 1/week 128 5.2 ≥ 1/day 293 12.0 Other fruits and vegetables 1–6/week 325 13.3 ≥ 1/day 1,699 69.4 < 1/week 1,831 74.7 1–6/week 649 26.5 Supplements: vitamin A or D < 1/week 101 4.1 ≥ 1/day 1,499 61.2 Eggs 1–6/week 176 7.2 ≥ 1/day 1,521 62.1 < 1/week 774 31.6 1–6/week 674 27.5 Supplements: others < 1/week 254 10.4 ≥ 1/day 1,167 47.6 Flesh foods 1–6/week 229 9.4 ≥ 1/day 983 40.1 < 1/week 1,053 43.0 1–6/week 1,104 45.1 Total 2,449 100.0 < 1/week 362 14.8 Pulses, nuts, and seeds ≥ 1/day 437 17.8 1–6/week 1,228 50.2 < 1/week 784 32.0 Table 1. Demographic characteristics and dietary intake frequency of the participants
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The eight-cluster solution is regarded as an optimal clustering solution for separating the current dataset into several clusters, given the comparatively greater cluster quality and high repeatability. Consequently, the eight-cluster solution was adopted for further analysis to examine the characteristics of dietary patterns of the individuals allocated to each cluster. Clusters 1 to 8 (C1–C8) consisted of the following numbers of participants each: N1 = 195 (8.0%), N
2 = 361 (14.8%), N 3 = 214 (8.7%), N 4 = 373 (15.2%), N 5 = 423 (17.3%), N 6 = 516 (21.1%), N 7 = 263 (10.7%), and N 8 = 104 (4.2%). K-means cluster analysis outcomes and the differences between distributions of food frequency for each cluster are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. In C1, C2, and C7, children had a high consumption frequency of grains, fruits, vegetables, and nutrient supplements, while they had a medium consumption frequency of eggs, flesh foods, and pulses. The difference in dietary consumption between C1 and C2 was found in sugar drinks and fortified food consumption, for which children in C1 had a high frequency and those in C2 had a low frequency. Children in C7 had the highest breast milk consumption (more than once per day was 91.3%). In C3, C5, and C6, children had a high consumption frequency of grains, while they had a medium consumption frequency of fruits, vegetables, as well as eggs, flesh foods, and pulses, yet a low consumption frequency of other supplements (iron, zinc, calcium, DHA). Children in C3 had the lowest milk product consumption (more than once per day was 0.5%). Children in C5 and C6 had the lowest consumption of other supplements (more than once per day was 0% and 0%, respectively). In C4, children had a medium consumption frequency of fruits, vegetables, and eggs, but a low consumption frequency of flesh foods, pulses, and breastmilk (more than once per day was 8.3%, 3.5%, and 0%, respectively). In C8, children still took milk as their dominant dairy food. They displayed the lowest consumption frequency of grains, fruits, vegetables, eggs, and flesh foods, a medium frequency of breast milk consumption, and a high frequency of dairy product consumption. Item Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 Cluster 5 Cluster 6 Cluster 7 Cluster 8 N (%) 195 (8.0) 361 (14.8) 214 (8.7) 373 (15.2) 423 (17.3) 516 (21.1) 263 (10.7) 104 (4.2) Grains 3.978 3.937 3.742 3.869 3.900 3.952 3.827 1.617 Vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables 3.813 3.545 2.763 3.178 3.396 3.796 3.473 1.336 Other fruits and vegetables 3.870 3.823 2.980 3.414 3.578 3.570 3.715 1.308 Eggs 3.641 3.291 2.821 3.412 3.409 2.622 3.378 1.271 Flesh foods 3.632 3.243 2.110 2.604 2.823 3.496 2.793 1.187 Pulses, nuts, and seeds 3.197 2.169 1.722 1.828 2.100 2.200 2.072 1.168 Breast milk 1.232 1.399 1.628 1.055 1.113 1.448 3.949 2.215 Dairy products 3.825 3.783 3.038 3.893 3.884 3.174 2.944 3.336 Snacks 3.616 3.238 1.758 2.313 2.712 3.313 2.707 1.299 Sugar drinks 2.003 1.537 1.339 1.212 1.187 1.430 1.372 1.393 Fortified foods 2.124 1.074 1.235 1.368 1.559 3.970 1.798 1.084 Supplements: vitamin A or D 3.841 1.066 1.148 3.911 3.953 1.139 3.699 3.262 Supplements: others 3.908 1.624 1.418 3.937 1.135 1.426 3.011 2.935 Table 2. Eight dietary clusters and means of food consumption scores
Item Cluster 1
N = 195Cluster 2
N = 361Cluster 3
N = 214Cluster 4
N = 373Cluster 5
N = 423Cluster 6
N = 516Cluster 7
N = 263Cluster 8
N = 104n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) Grains ≥ 1/day 192 (98.5) 352 (97.4) 176 (82.3) 328 (87.9) 393 (92.9) 470 (91.1) 236 (89.7) 18 (17.3) 1–6/week 3 (1.5) 8 (2.3) 36 (16.8) 45 (12.1) 29 (6.9) 45 (8.7) 25 (9.5) 19 (18.3) < 1/week 0 (0) 1 (0.3) 2 (0.9) 0 (0) 1 (0.2) 1 (0.2) 2 (0.8) 67 (64.4) Vitamin-A rich fruits and vegetables ≥ 1/day 176 (90.3) 284 (78.7) 96 (44.9) 148 (39.7) 272 (64.3) 303 (58.7) 187 (71.0) 1 (1.0) 1–6/week 17 (8.7) 76 (21.0) 110 (51.4) 210 (56.3) 144 (34.0) 196 (38.0) 70 (26.7) 31 (29.8) < 1/week 2 (1.0) 1 (0.3) 8 (3.7) 15 (4.0) 7 (1.7) 17 (3.3) 6 (2.3) 72 (69.2) Other fruits and vegetables ≥ 1/day 179 (91.8) 316 (87.5) 117 (54.7) 190 (50.9) 313 (74.0) 366 (70.9) 218 (82.9) 0 (0) 1–6/week 15 (7.7) 43 (11.9) 92 (43.0) 177 (47.5) 106 (25.1) 143 (27.7) 44 (16.7) 29 (27.9) < 1/week 1 (0.5) 2 (0.6) 5 (2.3) 6 (1.6) 4 (0.9) 7 (1.4) 1 (0.4) 75 (72.1) Eggs ≥ 1/day 150 (76.9) 275 (76.2) 107 (50.0) 226 (60.6) 295 (69.7) 271 (52.6) 195 (74.1) 2 (1.9) 1–6/week 32 (16.4) 68 (18.8) 82 (38.3) 115 (30.8) 99 (23.4) 204 (39.5) 53 (20.1) 21 (20.2) < 1/week 13 (6.7) 18 (5.0) 25 (11.7) 32 (8.6) 29 (6.9) 41 (7.9) 15 (5.8) 81 (77.9) Flesh foods ≥ 1/day 152 (77.9) 254 (70.4) 70 (32.7) 31 (8.3) 183 (43.3) 190 (36.8) 102 (38.8) 1 (1.0) 1–6/week 34 (17.5) 104 (28.8) 102 (47.7) 265 (71.1) 193 (45.6) 253 (49.0) 135 (51.3) 18 (17.3) < 1/week 9 (4.6) 3 (0.8) 42 (19.6) 77 (20.6) 47 (11.1) 73 (14.2) 26 (9.9) 85 (81.7) Pulses, nuts, and seeds ≥ 1/day 109 (55.9) 92 (25.5) 44 (20.6) 13 (3.5) 60 (14.2) 65 (12.5) 54 (20.5) 0 (0) 1–6/week 69 (35.4) 212 (58.7) 84 (39.3) 230 (61.7) 256 (60.6) 224 (43.5) 135 (51.3) 18 (17.3) < 1/week 17 (8.7) 57 (15.8) 86 (40.1) 130 (34.8) 107 (25.2) 227 (44.0) 74 (28.2) 86 (82.7) Dairy products ≥ 1/day 176 (90.3) 347 (96.1) 1 (0.5) 352 (94.4) 407 (96.2) 495 (95.9) 174 (66.2) 83 (79.8) 1–6/week 8 (4.1) 8 (2.3) 41 (19.1) 11 (3.0) 9 (2.1) 21 (4.0) 35 (13.3) 4 (3.8) < 1/week 11 (5.6) 6 (1.7) 172 (80.4) 10 (2.7) 7 (1.7) 0 (0) 54 (20.5) 17 (16.3) Breast milk ≥ 1/day 14 (7.2) 0 (0) 114 (53.3) 0 (0) 57 (13.5) 46 (8.9) 240 (91.3) 33 (31.7) 1–6/week 22 (11.3) 17 (4.7) 41 (19.2) 19 (5.1) 28 (6.6) 56 (10.8) 23 (8.7) 9 (8.7) < 1/week 159 (81.5) 344 (95.3) 59 (27.6) 354 (94.9) 338 (79.9) 414 (80.2) 0 (0) 62 (59.6) Snacks ≥ 1/day 151 (77.4) 185 (51.2) 54 (25.2) 54 (14.5) 145 (34.3) 172 (33.3) 107 (40.7) 1 (1.0) 1–6/week 39 (20.0) 153 (42.4) 113 (52.8) 247 (66.2) 227 (53.7) 239 (46.4) 122 (46.4) 22 (21.2) < 1/week 5 (2.6) 23 (6.4) 47 (22.0 72 (19.3) 51 (12.1) 105 (20.3) 34 (12.9) 81 (77.9) Sugar drinks ≥ 1/day 110 (56.4) 2 (0.6) 10 (4.7) 12 (3.2) 9 (2.1) 27 (5.3) 21 (8.0) 8 (7.7) 1–6/week 23 (11.8) 58 (16.1) 62 (29.0) 55 (14.8) 41 (9.7) 103 (19.9) 43 (16.4) 15 (14.4) < 1/week 62 (31.8) 301 (83.3) 142 (66.3) 306 (82.0) 373 (88.2) 386 (74.8) 199 (75.6) 81 (77.9) Fortified foods ≥ 1/day 115 (59.0) 1 (0.3) 12 (5.6) 34 (9.1) 53 (12.5) 28 (5.4) 48 (18.3) 2 (1.9) 1–6/week 18 (9.2) 45 (12.4) 19 (8.9) 68 (18.2) 68 (16.1) 48 (9.3) 54 (20.5) 5 (4.8) < 1/week 62 (31.8) 315 (87.3) 183 (85.5) 271 (72.7) 302 (71.4) 440 (85.3) 161 (61.2) 97 (93.3) Supplements: vitamin A or D ≥ 1/day 148 (75.9) 318 (88.1) 52 (24.3) 283 (75.9) 404 (95.5) 0 (0) 227 (86.3) 67 (64.4) 1–6/week 13 (6.7) 10 (2.8) 26 (12.1) 30 (8.0) 19 (4.5) 49 (9.5) 16 (6.1) 13 (12.5) < 1/week 34 (17.4) 33 (9.1) 136 (63.6) 60 (16.1) 0 (0.0) 467 (90.5) 20 (7.6) 24 (23.1) Supplements: others ≥ 1/day 171 (87.7) 345 (95.5) 10 (4.6) 343 (92.0) 0 (0) 0 (0.0) 237 (90.1) 61 (58.7) 1–6/week 15 (7.7) 16 (4.5) 26 (12.2) 30 (8.0) 46 (10.9) 62 (12.0) 22 (8.4) 12 (11.5) < 1/week 9 (4.6) 0 (0) 178 (83.2) 0 (0) 377 (89.1) 454 (88.0) 4 (1.5) 31 (29.8) Table 3. Dietary intake frequency by cluster
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According to the characteristics of the eight clusters, the dietary patterns of children aged 12–24 months were classified into four types. Each pattern is shown in Figure 1. Pattern 1 (n = 819, 33.5%), including Clusters 1, 2, and 7, showed children with a high intake frequency of grains, fruits, vegetables, animal-source foods, and nutrient supplements. Pattern 2 (n = 1,153, 47.1%), including Clusters 3, 5, and 6, displayed a high intake frequency of grains, medium intake frequency of fruits, vegetables, and animal-source foods, and a low intake frequency of nutrient supplements. Pattern 3 (n = 373, 15.2%), including Cluster 4, featured a high intake frequency of grains, a medium intake frequency of fruits, vegetables, and eggs, and a low intake frequency of flesh food and pulses. Pattern 4 (n = 104, 4.2%), including Cluster 8, showed a low intake frequency of grains and a very low intake frequency of fruits, vegetables, eggs, and flesh foods.
Figure 1. Dietary Intake Frequency by Pattern. Grains: rice, wheat flour, roots, tubers, and corn; VA-rich F&V: vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables; Other F&V: other fruits and vegetables; Eggs: fresh egg, salted duck egg, and preserved egg; Flesh foods: meat, fish, poultry, organ meats; Beans: beans, peas, lentils, nuts, and seeds; Dairy product: milk, infant formula, yogurt, cheese; Others: iron, zinc, calcium, DHA.
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The distributions of LAZ, WAZ, and WLZ by dietary pattern are presented in Figure 2. Average Z scores by dietary pattern are presented in Table 4. It can be seen that Pattern 4 had the lowest average of LAZ and WAZ, with −0.10 ± 1.34 and 0.24 ± 1.00, respectively. LAZ and WAZ for Patterns 1 and 2 were significantly higher than for Patterns 3 and 4. Comparisons of means between patterns are shown in Table 5. There was no significant association between WLZ and patterns of dietary consumption among these children.
Figure 2. Length-for-age Z scores (LAZ), weight-for-age Z scores (WAZ), and weight-for-length Z scores (WLZ) by dietary pattern.
Item Pattern 1
N = 819Pattern 2
N = 1,153Pattern 3
N = 373Pattern 4
N = 104Total
N = 2,449F value P value Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD LAZ 0.15 1.21 0.30 1.24 0.02 1.16 -0.10 1.34 0.19 1.23 7.940 < 0.001 WAZ 0.36 1.01 0.45 1.08 0.23 1.00 0.24 1.00 0.38 1.04 5.317 < 0.001 WLZ 0.38 1.01 0.42 1.12 0.30 1.03 0.39 0.88 0.39 1.06 1.169 0.320 Note. LAZ, Length-for-age Z scores; WAZ, weight-for-age Z scores; WLZ, weight-for-length Z scores. Table 4. Average Z scores by dietary pattern
Comparisons of Patterns Difference between means* 95% CI P value LAZ Pattern2–Pattern4 0.41 0.161, 0.652 < 0.001 Pattern2–Pattern3 0.28 0.142, 0.428 < 0.001 Pattern1–Pattern4 0.26 0.008, 0.508 0.043 Pattern2–Pattern1 0.15 0.039, 0.258 0.008 Pattern1–Pattern3 0.13 −0.013, 0.287 0.075 Pattern3–Pattern4 0.12 −0.145, 0.388 0.372 WAZ Pattern2–Pattern3 0.23 0.104, 0.347 < 0.001 Pattern2–Pattern4 0.22 0.006, 0.424 0.044 Pattern1–Pattern3 0.13 0.003, 0.258 0.045 Pattern2–Pattern1 0.10 0.001, 0.188 0.046 Pattern1–Pattern4 0.12 −0.092, 0.333 0.267 Pattern4–Pattern3 0.01 −0.216, 0.237 0.928 WLZ Pattern2–Pattern3 0.12 −0.006, 0.242 0.062 Pattern1–Pattern3 0.08 −0.045, 0.215 0.200 Pattern4–Pattern3 0.09 −0.139, 0.322 0.437 Pattern2–Pattern1 0.03 −0.062, 0.128 0.493 Pattern2–Pattern4 0.03 −0.186, 0.240 0.805 Pattern4–Pattern1 0.01 −0.210, 0.223 0.953 Note. *The values of difference between means are sorted from the highest to the lowest. LAZ, Length-for-age Z scores; WAZ, weight-for-age Z scores; WLZ, weight-for-length Z scores. Table 5. Multiple comparisons by dietary pattern
The Patterns of Complementary Feeding and Growth among 12 to 23 Month-Old Children in China
doi: 10.3967/bes2021.118
- Received Date: 2021-10-23
- Accepted Date: 2021-11-18
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Key words:
- Dietary pattern /
- Z score /
- Growth /
- Children aged 12 to 23 months
Abstract:
Citation: | WANG Shuo, MEI Yue, MA Zhong Hua, ZHAO Wen Hua, TANG Xue Jun, PANG Xue Hong, ZHANG Qian, LI Rui Li, WANG Yu Ying, XU Tao. The Patterns of Complementary Feeding and Growth among 12 to 23 Month-Old Children in China[J]. Biomedical and Environmental Sciences, 2021, 34(11): 847-858. doi: 10.3967/bes2021.118 |