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A battery of behavioral tests was used to evaluate the postoperative delirium induced by anesthesia and surgery in older mice. The natural behavior of mice can be studied by the open fields test and the buried food test. Figure 1B showed that mice in the Anesthesia/Surgery group took more time to search for food at 6 h and 9 h after surgery as compared to the Control group [34.19 (38.92) vs. 156.5 (100.8), P = 0.004] and [56.62 (23.31) vs. 480.2 (153.1), P = 0.020, respectively].
To evaluate the motor function of mice, we conducted an open-field test. Our study found that there was no significant difference in motor speed between the two groups in the central region at 6 h, 9 h, and 24 h after surgery [93.35 (43.17) vs. 49.56 (33.76), P = 0.180; 77.45 (81.65) vs. 61.50 (32.6), P = 0.394; 162.8 vs. 62.08 (106.27), P = 0.132, respectively, as shown in Figure 1C]. In terms of time spent in the center, there were no significant changes observed between the surgical group and the control group [6 h: 32.95 (45.03) vs. 23.58 (43.8), P = 0.937; 9 h: 73.57 (133.4) vs. 33.07 (40.9), P = 0.180; 24 h: 16.29 (20.13) vs. 8.926 (27.0), P = 0.937, as shown in Figure 1D]. In conclusion, our results suggest that anesthesia and surgery do not affect the motor function of mice.
Finally, we conducted a Y maze test to evaluate the hippocampus-dependent spatial learning of mice after surgery. The results showed that the number of entries of the new arm in the Anesthesia/Surgery group decreased compared to the Control group at 6 h after the surgery [4.5 (3.5) vs. 1.0 (1.0), P = 0.002, Figure 1E]. However, there was no significant difference between the two groups at 9 h after surgery [2.5 (2.25) vs. 1.5 (2.5), P = 0.316] and 24 h after surgery [1.5 (2.5) vs. 1 (1.5), P = 0.188]. The duration in the new arm of the mice in the Anesthesia/Surgery group was lower than that of the Control group at 6 h [185.6 (155.9) vs. 52.01 (68.2), P = 0.041], 9 h [177.6 (65.9) vs. 53.4 (20.6), P = 0.001], and 24 h [162.5 (23.13) vs. 27.78 (23.8), P < 0.001] after surgery (Figure 1F). These findings suggested that the recovery of learning and memory abilities in mice depends on the time after surgery.
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The C3 and S100beta levels at 24 h postoperatively in the hippocampus showed a significant increase in the Anesthesia/Surgery group compared to the control group [C3: 0.236 (0.515) vs. 0.154 (0.115), P = 0.002; S100beta: 0.614 (0.233) vs. 0.308 (0.136), P = 0.004,] as illustrated in Figure 1G and 1H, respectively.
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High-quality experimental data is crucial for reliable results. We conducted a Person correlation analysis on the quality control samples in the positive (Figure 2A) and negative (Figure 2B) ion modes of saliva samples. To avoid overfitting in the modeling process, we conducted a Permutation test, demonstrating that the model did not have any fitting phenomenon and had good robustness (Figure 2C–D). All the correlation coefficients of the quality control samples were above 0.9, indicating high experimental repeatability. OPLS-DA score plots were utilised to distinguish between metabolites in all samples.The quality control of experimental data of hippocampus, cortex and amygdala can be seen in Supplementary Figure S1, available in www.besjournal.com. Figure 3 shows a significant separation of the two groups in positive and negative ion modes. Similarly, Q2 (positive-ion mode, 0.777 and negative-ion mode, 0.774) indicated the stability and reliability of the model.
Figure 2. Quality control of experimental data (saliva sample). Person correlation analysis on the quality control samples in the positive (A) and negative (B) modes. Permutation tests between the two groups in the positive mode (C) and the negative mode (D).
Figure 3. The OPLS-DA score plots were demonstrated as saliva (A) (the positive ion mode) and (B) (the negative ion mode), hippocampus (C) (the positive ion mode) and (D) (the negative ion mode), cortex (E) (the positive ion mode) and (F) (the negative ion mode), amygdala (G) (the positive ion mode) and (H) (the negative ion mode) between the two groups. C: the control group, AS: the Anesthesia/Surgery group.
Metabolomics techniques were utilised to identify metabolites in delirium models from samples such as saliva, hippocampus, cortex, and amygdala. In saliva, a total of 638 metabolites (429 features in positive mode and 209 elements in negative mode) were detected. In the hippocampus, 1,023 metabolites were detected (672 in positive mode and 351 in negative mode). Similarly, 1,370 metabolites (868 in positive mode and 502 in negative mode) were identified in cortex tissue. Furthermore, in amygdala tissue, a total of 1,558 metabolites (944 in positive mode and 614 in negative mode) were detected. The classification of metabolites in these four samples is shown in Table 1.
Metabolites (superclass) NO. of identified metabolites Saliva Hippocampus Cortex Amygdala Lipids and lipid−like molecules 153 225 347 363 Organic acids and derivatives 173 254 315 320 Organoheterocyclic compounds 68 101 133 203 Benzenoids 56 84 96 197 Organic oxygen compounds 45 84 114 130 Phenylpropanoids and polyketides 24 43 57 86 Nucleosides nucleotides and analogues 14 61 71 63 Organic nitrogen compounds 26 29 39 53 Alkaloids and derivatives 2 3 5 7 Lignans, neolignans and related compounds 3 2 1 6 Organosulfur compounds − − 1 5 Homogeneous non−metal compounds − − − 3 Organoheterocyclic compounds − − 1 1 Organometallic compounds 2 1 4 1 Organic 1,3−dipolar compounds − 1 − − Hydrocarbon derivatives − − 1 − Table 1. Classification and quantity of differential metabolites screened
The OPLS-DA analysis is a multivariate statistical analysis method that can significantly identify metabolite differences while eliminating irrelevant factors. We utilised this method to compare the surgical and the control group. The model’s predictive ability, measured by Q2, was higher than 0.7 for all comparison groups, indicating reliability. The OPLS-DA score charts separated the surgical and the control groups (Figure 3). Figure 4 presented volcano plots of metabolites in positive mode. Red circles indicate upregulated metabolites, while blue circles indicate downregulated metabolites. The volcanic plots in the negative mode are shown in Supplementary Figure S2, available in www.besjournal.com.
Figure 4. Based on univariate analysis, the volcanic plots present differential (A) saliva, (B) hippocampus, (C) cortex, and (D) amygdala metabolites with the criteria of FC > 1.5 or FC < 0.67, P-value < 0.05 in positive mode of the two groups. As shown in the volcano plots, the upregulated and downregulated features were marked as red and blue, respectively. FC, fold change.
We screened metabolites following a strict selection criterion, including OPLS-DA VIP > 1 and P value < 0.05. Our analysis revealed that salivary metabolites showed 24 increases and 19 decreases in quantity. In the hippocampus, we found 12 increased and 21 reduced metabolites. Cortex samples exhibited an increase in 27 metabolites and a decrease in 11 metabolites. Amygdala samples showed 7 upregulated and 7 downregulated metabolites. The details of different metabolites were shown in Supplementary Figures S3 and S4, available in www.besjournal.com.
Figure S3. Screening for differential metabolites in saliva (A), hippocampus (B), cortex (C), and amygdala (D) under positive mode with criteria OPLS-DA VIP > 1 and P value < 0.05.
We first identified the differential metabolites and then matched them with the KEGG database to find out the pathways they are associated with. To determine which metabolic and signal transduction pathways are significantly affected, we used Fisher’s Exact Test to analyze and calculate the significance levels of metabolite enrichment in each path. This analysis’s results were presented as a bubble plot (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Enrichment map of metabolic pathways in saliva (A), hippocampus (B), cortex (C), and amygdala (D). Color represents the P-value of enrichment analysis. The darker the color, the smaller the P-value, and the more significant the enrichment degree.
Our study involved screening for different metabolites in saliva samples and three brain regions. To facilitate the summary and observation of the expression of various metabolites annotated by the KEGG metabolic pathway, we chose the main pathway with the highest number of differential metabolites (Figure 6A). The main metabolic pathways in the hippocampus were mainly related to the “biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids” and “mmu01100 metabolic pathways”. Cortex enriched multiple pathways, including “mmu01100 metabolic pathways” “mineral absorption” “central carbon metabolism in cancer” and “biosynthesis of amino acids”. The main pathways involved in the amygdala region were “pyrimidine metabolism” and “protein digestion and absorption”. Significantly, “1-methylhistidine” was upregulated, and “D-glutamine” was downregulated in the amygdala, hippocampus, and cortex. The expression of these two substances in different brain regions is shown in Figure 6B–G.
Figure 6. (A) A summary of the primary differential metabolites found in saliva, hippocampus, cortex, and amygdala samples. The shadow color represents different samples, and the overlapping parts indicate common pathways and metabolites. The circle represents the primary metabolic pathway, while the rectangle represents differential metabolites. The upregulated and downregulated metabolites were marked as red rectangles and blue rectangles, respectively. The levels of 1-methylhistidine and D-Glutamine expression were measured in the hippocampus (B, E), cortex (C, F), and amygdala (D, G). C: the control group, AS: the Anesthesia/Surgery group. POD, ostoperative delirium.
We detected 43 differential metabolites in saliva samples and performed KEGG pathway analysis to understand their biological functions. The analysis revealed that “hsa01100 Metabolic pathways” were involved in the largest number of metabolites, including “Pyruvate” “alpha-linolenic acid” and “2-oleoyl-1-palmitoy-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine”. Furthermore, these three substances had similar expression patterns as determined by cluster analysis (Figure 7). Based on these findings, we selected these three substances as potential biomarkers of saliva.
Figure 7. Differential metabolite clustering heatmap of KEGG pathways. The chart displays differential metabolites, where the vertical axis represents the significantly differentially expressed metabolite, and the horizontal axis represents the sample group. The color blocks at different positions show the relative expression levels of metabolites, with red indicating high expression levels, and blue indicating low expression levels. Metabolites with similar expression patterns are clustered under the same cluster on the left.
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Anesthesia/Surgery-induced Postoperative Delirium in Older Mice
Anesthesia/Surgery-induced Neuroinflammation in Older Mice with Postoperative Delirium
The Changes of Metabolite Profiles in Older Mice with Postoperative Delirium
23323Supplementary Materials.pdf |